Contruction - designers

Part of the problem with the construction industry is that safety is not considered when buildings and other structures are designed. This is a fundamental flaw that can result in injury to construction workers, and have an impact on future users and maintainers. To avoid this it is important that building designers

* Eliminate hazards where feasible (eg. if specifying roof lights specify non-fragile materials);
* Reduce risks from those hazards that cannot be eliminated (eg. specify designs and coatings for materials at height to reduce the need/frequency for replacement, cleaning and re-painting);
* Provide information on residual risks if they are significant (eg. if a set sequence of assembly or demolition is required to maintain structural stability).

In order to do this a competent designer will need knowledge and experience of the construction process.

In this context a designers include architect, consulting engineers, quantity surveyors, building service engineers, temporary works engineers and others who specify the whats and the hows in detail.

Excavations

Excavations create a number of hazards closely related to working at height. In particular people can fall into the excavation and things can be dropped on people who are in the hole. There is no specific depth at which an excavation is considered to be dangerous, remembering that someone bending over or kneeling down in a shallow hole could be serious hurt if it collapses.

In addition excavations can become confined spaces, there is the potential for sides to cave in and for contact to be made with underground hazards including buried services and contaminated soil.

Precautions to cave in include angling the sides instead of making them verticle, making sure spoil from digging the excavtion is not left at the side and providing support using timber, sheeting or propriety systems.

The potential for buried services should be identified before starting the excavation. Where this risk is not zero precautions such as detectors/locators and digging of test trenches should be used.

A competent person must inspect excavations:
* At the start of each shift before work begins;
* After any event likely to have affected the strength or stability of the excavation; and
* After any accidental fall of rock, earth or other material.

A written report should be made after most inspections.

Of course there are also hazards associated with the method used to create the excavation. Doing it by hand creates manual handling issues whilst alternative methods usually involve the use of vehicles.

Working at height

People falling from height are at risk of injury. Even falls from low heights can cause serious injury, although the greater the distance fallen is clearly a factor in the actual consequences.

Before carrying out work at height the first question must always be whether it can be avoided. If not, it is important that the work is planned properly and the risks assessed. Good organisation and competent people are required.

Planning the work should include the following:

* Selection of the correct method of access (e.g. ladder, scaffold tower, scaffolding, mobile elevating work platform (MEWP))
* Measures to prevent falls (e.g. guardrails)
* Mitigation that reduces distance fallen or impact for anyone who may fall (e.g. nets and airbags)
* Personal mitigation that an individual can use (e.g. line and harness or fall arrestor).

The Work at Height Regulations 2005 apply to all work at height where there is a risk of a fall liable to cause personal injury. There is no minimum height specified (in the past people have referred to the 2 metre rule, but this does not apply)

Duties are placed on employers, the self-employed, and any person that controls the work of others (for example facilities managers or building owners who may contract others to work at height). They include:

* avoid work at height where they can;
* use work equipment or other measures to prevent falls where they cannot avoid working at height;
* where they cannot eliminate the risk of a fall, use work equipment or other measures to minimise the distance and consequences of a fall should one occur.

Specific issues covered by the regulations include:
* all work at height is properly planned and organised;
* all work at height takes account of weather conditions that could endanger
health and safety;
* those involved in work at height are trained and competent;
* the place where work at height is done is safe;
* equipment for work at height is appropriately inspected;
* the risks from fragile surfaces are properly controlled; and
* the risks from falling objects are properly controlled.

The Regulations do not apply to the provision of paid instruction or leadership in caving or climbing by way of sport, recreation, team building or similar activities. There is a proposal to amend the regulations in the future so that they do apply to these activities.

Reference

Construction - hazards

A lot of people get hurt and killed on construction sites every year. The reality is that there are few hazards that only occur on construction sites, but the problem is that due to the nature of activity control.

The things that happen to people include:

* They fall off things
* They fall into holes
* They trip over things
* Things are dropped on them
* They are squashed by moving equipment and vehicles
* They are exposed to hazardous substances (especially asbestos, dust and solvents in adhesives and paints)
* They come into contact with electricity
* They get hurt during manual handling

One crucial difference is that the quality of an individuals work can impact on someone else's health and safety, possibly sometime after the construction work is complete. This may be during use of the building, maintaining or even demolishing it. For this reason the the way buildings and other structures are designed and constructed needs careful consideration.

Stress

Stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them. Whilst pressure is part and parcel of all work and helps to keep us motivated, it is excessive pressure that can lead to stress. Stress undermines performance, is costly to employers and can make people ill.

The primary sources of stress at work include:
* High demands – workload, work patterns and the work environment.
* Lack of control – how much say the person has in the way they do their work.
* Lack of support – encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the organisation, line management and colleagues.
* Poor relationships – conflict and how unacceptable behaviour is dealt with.
* Poorly defined roles – how people understand their role whether there are conflicting roles.
* Poorly managed change – how organisational change (large or small) is managed and communicated in the organisation.

Organisations should have systems in place to manage stress. This should include a policy, organisation and arrangements to identify potential stress (through risk assessment), actual stress (sickness rates) and deal with it. Also, proactive monitoring stress, often through the use of staff surveys.

Reference

A safe place to work

The following fall into the general category of safety

* Lighting must be sufficient for people to work safely.
* People need enough space. As a minimum 11m3 per person (with any height above 3m being considered as 3m for this calculation)
* Floors and traffic routes must be sound and strong enough. Not have holes, not be slippery or obstructed
Handrails provided for stairways
* Clear/glass doors must be arranged so people are not liable to walk into them and protected against breaking
* It must be possible to clean windows safely
* Doors that swing both ways must allow people to see through so people behind are not hurt
* Escalators and moving walkways must be of safe design and condition, and have emergency stop buttons.

Reference

Welfare and hygiene

People cannot remain healthy at work if there basic welfare needs are not catered for. This includes the following:

* Toilets
* Facilities to wash (including showers where necessary)
* Drinking water supply
* Place to eat
* Place to change and store clothes (if work clothes are required)
* Rest facilities for pregnant ladies (i reasonably practicable)

It is important to recognise that people eating with dirty hands can result in them ingesting hazardous materials. Also, that dirty clothes can mean people taking hazardous materials into their car, home to family etc.

Facilities have to be kept clean, in good condition and supplied with materials (e.g. toilet paper, soap). Also, rooms need to be well ventilated and at a reasonable temperature (not too hot or cold).

This is covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992

Display Screen Equipment

DSE can contribute to WRULD. Also, tired or sore eyes, and headaches (especially for people who wear contact lenses or bi-focal glasses).

As well as the physical layout of the workstation, the screen can have glare or poor image quality.

People using DSE can suffer from stress due to the expected pace of work or anxiety about new technology.

There is no evidence to suggest radiation from screens is a problem, even for pregnant ladies. A few people claim skin problems, but this is more likely to be with air quality (that may be affected by electrical equipment) rather than the DSE itself. A small number of epileptics may have problems.

The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 are commonly known as the DSE Regulations. They require that operators or users have:

* Adequate training and information;
* Proper breaks or changes of activity;
* Work stations suitable for them which meet, where necessary, the standards in the schedule; and
* Eye tests if they request them.


Reference

Work Related Upper Limb Disorders

WRULD, sometimes known as repetitive strain injury (although not always as the result of strain hence use of term WRULD).

They are problems with the shoulder and arm, including the forearm, elbow, wrist, hand and fingers. ULDs can include neck pain.

Any type of work that involves a worker using their arms to carry out tasks, can lead to ULDs. Computer use and assembly work are frequently associated with ULDs, but there are many other tasks that may have higher risks.

Symptoms include tenderness, aches and pain, stiffness, weakness, tingling, numbness, cramp, or swelling.

Risk factors include:

* Repeating an action
* Uncomfortable working position
* Using a lot of force
* Carrying out a task for a long period of time
* Poor working environment
* Psychosocial issues (lack of control or status)

In finding solutions it is important to recognise that people are different sizes, have different abilities and some have disabilities.

Reference

Neck and back pain

Neck and back pain can arise in many situations, but the following are known to commonly cause problems:

* heavy manual labour;
* manual handling in awkward places;
* repetitive tasks;
* sitting at a workstation for a long time (especially if not set up properly)
* driving long distances or over rough ground.
* stooping, bending over or crouching, including work at PCs (poor posture);
* pushing, pulling or dragging excessive loads;
* stretching, twisting and reaching;
* prolonged periods in one position, leading to postural strain;
* situations where the whole body is subjected to vibration, jolting and jarring.

As with many ill health conditions, some people are more susceptible to back pain than others.

Reference HSE webpage

Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of objects, systems and environment for human use. The aim is to use this information ensure comfort, efficiency, productivity and safety. Ergonomics comes into everything which involves people. In a phrase, the job must ‘fit the person’ in all respects, and the work situation should not compromise human capabilities and limitations.

Ergonomics covers anatomy, physiology and psychology.

Ergonomics society

Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapour in air. Levels are usually quoted as relative humidity, which is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at that air temperature

High relative humidity (>80%) starts to prevent evaporation of sweat from the body. This evaporation is a major way of regulating body temperature. Therefore, high humidity can contribute to heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

Humidity is particularly a concern when people are required to wear extra clothing (i.e. in the form of personal protective equipment PPE). In this case the humidity inside clothing can be significantly higher than outside.

Humidity is covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992.

Temperature

Working in conditions that are too hot can cause:

* Heat stress - can affect someones ability to work, potentially leading to heat exhaustion and heat stroke (can result in unconsciousness and can be fatal)
* Dehydration

Working in cold conditions can cause:

* Cold stress
* Hypo-thermia

Temperatures in the workplace are covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992. Employers must provide a “reasonable” temperature in the workplace.

The ACOP suggests a minimum temperature in workrooms should normally be at least 16 degrees Celsius, or 13 degrees Celsius if much of the work indoors involves severe physical effort.

A meaningful figure cannot be given at the upper end of the scale because other factors have an affect including radiant temperature, humidity and air velocity.

Vibrations

There are two main concerns regarding vibration

1. Whole body vibration
2. Hand arm vibration

Whole-body vibration is shaking or jolting of the human body through a supporting surface (usually a seat or the floor), for example when driving or riding on a vehicle along an unmade road, operating earthmoving machines or standing on a structure attached to a large, powerful, fixed machine which is impacting or vibrating. It can cause back pain, often by aggravating a previous problem.

Hand-arm vibration can be caused by operating hand-held power tools (e.g. road breakers), hand-guided equipment (e.g. powered lawnmowers) or by holding materials being processed by machines (e.g. using pedestal grinders).

Regular and frequent exposure to hand-arm vibration can lead to permanent health effects (occasional exposure is unlikely to cause ill health). Symptoms include
* Tingling and numbness in the fingers;
* Not being able to feel things properly;
* Loss of strength in the hands;
* The fingers going white (blanching) and becoming red and painful on recovery
(particularly in the cold and wet, and probably only in the tips at first).
* Continued exposure can mean people cannot use their fingers properly, especially in cold conditions.

The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations require employers to:
* Assess the vibration risk to employees;
* Decide if they are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure action value (EAV), and if so introduce a programme of controls to eliminate risk, or reduce exposure to as low; and provide health surveillance
* Decide if they are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure limit value (ELV) and if they are take immediate action to reduce their exposure below the limit value;
* Provide information and training to employees on health risks and the actions you are taking to control those risks;
* Consult trade union safety representative or employee representative on your proposals to control risk and to provide health surveillance;
* Keep a record of risk assessment and control actions;
* Keep health records for employees under health surveillance;
* Review and update your risk assessment regularly.

The exposure action value (EAV) is a daily amount of vibration exposure above which employers are required to take action to control exposure. For hand-arm vibration the EAV is a daily exposure of 2.5 m/s2 A(8) and for whole body vibration 0.5 m/s2 A(8)

The exposure limit value (ELV) is the maximum amount of vibration an employee may be exposed to on any single day. For hand-arm vibration the ELV is a daily exposure of 5 m/s2 A(8) and for whole body vibration 1.15 m/s2 A(8)

Whole body vibration Reference

Hand- arm vibration Reference

Noise

Noise at work can cause hearing loss. This may be temporary, but continued exposure, or short term exposure to very high noise can cause permanent damage.

Other problems occurring to exposure to high levels noise include tinnitus (ringing, whistling, buzzing or humming in the ears). Also, it must be remembered that working in a noisy environment makes communication difficult and may even mean people cannot hear warnings and alarms.

Noise levels are measured in Decibels (dB). Limits are set for short and long term exposure.

Covered by the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005. They require employers to:
* Assess the risks to their employees from noise at work;
* Take action to reduce the noise exposure that produces those risks;
* Provide employees with hearing protection if the noise exposure cannot be reduced enough using other methods;
* Make sure the legal limits on noise exposure are not exceeded;
* Provide employees with information, instruction and training;
* Carry out health surveillance where there is a risk to health.

Legal limits are defined in three categories
1. Lower exposure action values:
– daily or weekly exposure of 80 dB;
– peak sound pressure of 135 dB;

2. Upper exposure action values:
– daily or weekly exposure of 85 dB;
– peak sound pressure of 137 dB.

3. Maximum exposure limit values (that must not be exceeded):
– daily or weekly exposure of 87 dB;
– peak sound pressure of 140 dB.

Key element of the regulations is that noise levels should be reduced before considering hearing protection.

Employees have a duty to co-operate with their employers in protecting hearing, including wearing hearing protection provided.

Reference

Non-ionising radiation

Non-ionising electromagnetic radiation (NIEMR) is the term used to describe the part of the electromagnetic spectrum covering two main regions, namely optical radiation (ultraviolet (UV), visible and infrared) and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) (power frequencies, microwaves and radio frequencies).

Some common sources of Optical Radiation are the sun, sunbeds and lasers, arc welding (arc eye)

* Exposure of the eyes to UV radiation can damage the cornea and produce pain and symptoms similar to that of sand in the eye. The effects on the skin range from redness, burning and accelerated ageing through to various types of skin cancer.
* High-power lasers can cause serious damage to the eye (including blindness) as well as producing skin burns.


Typical sources of EMFs are generated by electrical supply equipment and telecommunications systems. They include microwaves (i.e. oven). Exposure of people to high levels of EMFs can give rise to acute effects. The effects depend on the frequency, with low frequencies affecting the central nervous system whilst high frequencies causing heating effects that can lead to a rise in body temperature. In reality, these effects are extremely rare and will not occur in most day-to-day work situations

Ionising radiation

Ionising radiation occurs as either electromagnetic rays (such as X-rays and gamma rays) or particles (such as alpha and beta particles). It occurs naturally (e.g. from the radioactive decay of natural radioactive substances such as radon gas and its decay products) but can also be produced artificially. Everyone receives some exposure to natural background radiation.

It is used or occurs in the following work settings

* Medicine (for diagnosis and treatment)
* Industry (for measurement and non-destructive testing)
* Power generation
* Research and teaching

Exposure to ionising radiation can cause alter human cells. It can cause radiation bunrs, poisoning and lead to cancer. It can be dangerous to unborn babies.

Exposure from a source. Alternatively, ingesting radioactive material, which can be particularly bad because it is difficult to stop the exposure.

Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999 require employers to make exposure is restricted as far as reasonable practicable and is kept below dose limits. They require the appointment of Radiation Protection Advisers who have to achieve competence in the management of risk due to ionising radiation.

Classified people have a legal duty to wear a dosemeter

Physical & psycological health hazards

The following can cause physical and/or psycologucal harm

* Ionising and non-ionising radiation
* Noise
* Vibrations
* High or low temperatures
* High humidity
* Poor ergonomics - body position
* Repetitive actions
* Fatigue
* Stress

Carcinogens

The following are specified as carcinogens

Carcinogens of concern
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
* Ferrous foundry particulate
* Wood dust
* Rubber fume/rubber process dust
* Sulphuric acid mist
* Aromatic amines (in particular MbOCA and MDA)
* TGIC
* Beryllium and compounds
* Nickel and compounds
* Hexavalent chromium and compounds

Carcinogens of possible concern
* Refractory ceramic fibres and special purpose fibres
* Leather dust in footwear manufacture
* Plastic processing fume (as product of de-polymerising of plastic)
* Dyestuffs Auramine manufacture, Magenta manufacture, and dyes based on certain diazo bases, dichlorobenzidine
* Nitrosamines arising from processes
* Hydrazine and its salts
* Epichlorohydrin
* Dimethylsulphamoyl chloride,
* 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine,
* Dimethylcarbamoylchloride,
* 1,3-propanesultone,
* 1,4-dichlorobut-2-ene,
* Ethyleneimine
* Dimethyl sulphate
* Chlorodimethylether and bis(chloromethyl)ether
* Styrene oxide

Carcinogens of low concern
* Diesel engine exhaust emissions (DEEE)
* Benzene
* Vinyl chloride monomer
* Trichloroethylene
* Arsenic
* Cadmium
* Ethylene oxide

Reference

Acids and alkalis

Acids and alkali's are corrosive materials with multiple uses, including cleaning products.

Acids include eg hydrochloric acid (HCI), hydrofluoric acid (HF), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

Alkali's include sodium hydroxide (NaOH - caustic soda) and potassium hydroxide (KOH - caustic potash )

They can cause serious ill health mainly by:
1. Skin contact: acids and alkali's cause burns which are often slow to heal; and
2. Inhaling fumes or mist: concentrated solutions of acids and alkali's may give off toxic and corrosive fumes. Spray application produces a mist which may also be toxic and corrosive.

Reference