Violence in the workplace

Although a violent is not usually seen as an accident, the potential for violence at work is a risk that needs to be managed. There are two sources of violence that need to be considered, employees attacking each other and members of the public attacking employees. People working in health sectors, education, handling cash (retail outlets and cash deliveries) and people in positions of authority (e.g. police) are most at risk, especially if working alone.

Whilst violence is largely unpredictable, there are certain factors that make it more likely. They include:

* The incentive for violence (e.g. perception that large amounts of money or drugs can be obtained);
* The perception of the likelihood of getting caught;
* The potential for conflict (e.g. situations where people may disagree with what is happening, such as when being arrested)
* Likelihood that people are drunk or have taken drugs.

The job and working environment need to be designed to minimise the opportunities and incentives for violence. Employees who are at risk need to be trained how to deal with it, including recognising warning signs and taking appropriate action. Arrangements need to be made to summon help when required and to increase deterrents (e.g. CCTV). Violent incidents should be recorded and investigated in a similar way to accidents, in order to identify trends.

Reference

Working away from the normal work place

People may have a location away from their main base for some or all of their work (e.g. working from home) or may travel away from base to work (e.g. to visit clients). In both cases, the problem is that it is more difficult to know what hazards are going to be encountered and hence to assess risk and implement controls. Also, travelling is a risk in its own right.

Issues to consider include

* Where people work at a separate location on a regular basis, this location should be subject to the same assessments and controls as those for the normal work space. If the work is hazardous, the additional controls necessary may make working away from base uneconomic. Most work will be of low hazard, and setting up suitable office space and work stations will be the main concern.
* Where people visit sites controlled by another organisation, it is difficult to impose any further controls. In this case the employer should take reasonable steps to ensure the health and safety standards at the site are adequate, and to impose restrictions on what the employee can and cannot do. The employee should be competent in assessing their own risks and know to stop work if they consider it to be unsafe.
* There are some steps employers can take to minimise the risk of travelling. These include making sure vehicles are in good condition, providing driver training (e.g. defensive driving) and planning routes in advance. Policies for use of mobile phones and other devices (e.g. satellite navigation) should be developed.

Lone working

People working alone are not really exposed to any different hazards than if someone else was present, but the risks can be greater and so need to be considered in assessments. The following may apply to lone workers:

* If they have an accident or fall ill it may be a long time before they are discovered;
* They may be more prone to violence
* They may be tempted to tasks that should be done by two or more people because there is no one available to help
* They may break rules more often because there is no supervision
* Some may have psychological problems working alone, and find it stressful.

As a result of the risk assessment it should be possible to determine if it is safe for someone to work alone. If it is, measures are likely to be required that ensure lone workers do not have health problems that make them unsuitable, provide communication, ensure adequate competence and supervision. There are alarm systems that automatically alert to a 'man down' situation, but of course it is important to ensure there is someone to receive and act on any alarm.

Reference

Night workers

Working nights can affect health and causes other safety concerns.

Health problems occur because people are working outside normal 'circadian' rhythms. This disrupts sleep patterns which causes fatigue, that can have physical and psychological consequences. Nights workers are believed to be at higher risk of heart and stomach problems. Also, working unusual hours can impact relationships.

People working at night are likely to be tired and so prone to errors. Also, it is likely to be dark and there is usually less support (e.g. technical), which can create problems.

Where people work shifts (i.e. not on permanent nights) the pattern of days to nights and how they rotate can make a significant difference. Night workers can reduce risks by making sure they take their breaks (i.e. do not work overtime), get sleep when they can, power napping, eating healthily and not smoking.

Young people in the workplace

Young people can be at higher risk than because of their age and lack of experience of working in general, and in the particular job they are doing.

The following need to be considered in risk assessments when young people are at work.

* People are at particular risk of injury in the first six months of a job as they may be unaware of existing or potential risks.
* Young people may lack experience or maturity or may be unaware of how to raise concerns.
* They may not have reached physical maturity and therefore lack the strength demanded
* They may be eager to impress or please people with whom they work

A young person's first employer has an excellent opportunity to instill safe and healthy work in them, that will stay with them for the rest of their lives.

Legislation defines young people as being under the age of 18. It places restrictions on some activities and the hours they are able to work.

Reference

Medical conditions

The health of people can be a significant risk factor for hazardous work. Problems can arise because a medical condition may be exacerbated by the activity and/or if they do have a problem it may not be easy for them to receive appropriate medical treatment in a timely manner. This needs to be considered in risk assessments. the following may be an issue for activities involving work at height (especially from a ladder), driving, confined space entry:

* Recurring dizziness
* Epilepsy
* Psychiatric conditions (inc fear of heights)
* Heart condition
* Severe lung conditions
* Alcohol and drug abuse
* Significant impaired joint function
* Medication that recommends you do not operate machinery could also be a problem

When people are working with hazardous substances it is important to consider whether they are more susceptible than most due to a health problem (e.g. eczema, lung problems).

Women of child bearing age

Unborn and young babies are particularly vulnerable to certain hazards. Therefore, any workplace where women of child bearing age may be present must assess the risks to unborn and young babies. It is not good enough to just deal with this when someone announces they are present as a lot of damage can be done in the early weeks of pregnancy, and it must be recognised that the woman may not even know she is pregnant at this time.

Particular concerns are where any of these are present or can occur

* Working in awkward spaces and workstations.
* Vibration.
* Noise.
* Radiation
* Biological agents
* Infections.
* Chemical hazards
* Handling drugs and pesticides,
* Lead etc
* Inadequate facilities (including rest rooms).
* Excessive working hours (nightwork etc).
* Unusually stressful work.
* Exposure to cigarette smoke.
* High or low temperatures.
* Lone working.
* Work at heights.
* Travelling.
* Exposure to violence.

Also, it is recognised that expectant and new mothers can suffer from pregnancy related health problems that need to be taken into account.

Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 require employers to take particular account of of risks to new and expectant mothers. They require risks to be assessed and results made known to all women of child bearing age.

Reference

Housekeeping

50% of all trip accidents are caused by bad housekeeping. Leaving flammable materials lying around can cause a fire risk, and any obstacles can hinder escape in a fire. Also, there is a cultural element to housekeeping with people tending to feel safety it more important if their workplace is tidy and well ordered.

* Ensure there is a suitable walkway through the workplace
* Keep it clear, no trailing wires, no obstructions.
* Make sure there are places to put waste materials and make sure people use them promptly after waste is produced (e.g. packaging, broken equipment and parts)
* Make sure there is enough room to store tools, equipment and supplies and make sure items are returned to the correct store immediately after use.

It is all simple stuff that does not cost any money. But it can have a big impact on safety and how people perceive the importance of safety.

Legal requirements for monitoring

there is a clear duty under the The Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1992 for monitoring.

"Every employer shall make and give effect to such arrangements as are appropriate, having regard to the nature of his activities and the size of his undertaking, for the effective planning, organisation, control, monitoring and review of the preventive and protective measures"

Seting health and safety performance targets

As with most things in life, setting health and safety performance targets can help improve performance by giving people something tangible to aim for and because they show that the organisation is serious about the issue. However, setting targets can be fraught with problems. the obvious outcome we want from health and safety is that no one is harmed at work, but given that hazards always exist, risk management can only reduce the likelihood rather than eliminate it all together. But, setting what may be considered a more realistic target (i.e. something above zero) can give the impression that accidents are acceptable or that the organisation is willing to compromise on safety.

It is possible to set reactive targets (e.g. accident, incident and ill health rates; claims, enforcement and complaints) but their use may be limited. It is probably much better to set targets for positive outcomes. Examples may be:

* Completing inspections and audits as per schedule
* Implementing recommendations within a specified time scale
* People completing training
* People achieving competency standards
* Achieving a recognised standard (OHSAS 18001, RoSPA award)

Health and safety auditing

According to HSG65, audit is "the structured process of collecting independent information on the efficiency, effectiveness and reliability of the total health and safety management system and drawing up plans for corrective action." As such an the aims of an audit are to establish that:

There are two main types of audit

* Systems audit - checks that necessary systems are in place, comply with legislation, guidance and good practice and are generally appropriate for the level of risk
* Compliance audit - checks that the systems are being used and that this result in appropriate workplace precautions.

An audit cannot look at every element of a system, and so sampling is important. Some elements need to be checked more often than others, and it is bad practice simply to do the same audit every time. A useful concept is the idea of 'vertical' and 'horizontal' audits. A vertical audit takes a subjects and sees how it fits into all elements of the health and safety management system from top to bottom (i.e. how it is covered by policy, organisation, arrangements, measurement, audit and review). Whilst a horizontal audit selects one part of the system and considers how different items are addressed.

Any auditor should be able to act independently, so it is not normal for someone to audit their own system or compliance. However, internal audit can be carried out, typically by people from a different department from that being audited. These audits can be particularly useful at sharing best practice and learning through an organisation, and the auditors usually have the benefit of knowing the systems very well, including known weaknesses.

To ensure an audit system remains relevant it usually necessary to carry out some degree of external auditing. This is a requirement for auditing to standards, and has the advantage of the auditors being fully independent. However, there is the obvious cost of external audits and the possibility that the auditor does not understand the industry and its risks, or the organisations systems.

Auditing is not always as successful as it should be and there have been some high profile examples of where companies have had major incidents shortly after apparently successful audits. Part of the problem is that organisations get to know what they are going to be audited on, and make changes to do well in the audit. This can be at the expense of other items that are more critical but not covered by the audit. For this reason it is essential that all auditors use their schedule as a guide, whilst taking every opportunity to fully explore all aspects of the system that they feel may be critical.

Health and safety inspections

Inspections generally involve looking for physical evidence of how well health and safety is being managed. A general inspection of a premises is likely to involve people looking at the condition of premises, floors, passages, stairs, lighting, welfare and first aid facilities. These are all items that may considered to be low risk.

Inspections of higher risk items need to be more specific, and are often required by legislation. They include pressure vessels, lifting equipment, scaffolds, excavations and local exhaust ventilation.

The people carrying out inspections need to be suitably competent, and will usually use some form of inspection checklist. To be effective, inspections need to be:

* Properly planned so that they are carried out at a suitable frequency and address the key risk issues
* Record suitable remedial actions
* Not be restricted to the specific items, but used as an opportunity to make general observations (e.g. house keeping and cleanliness)

Results of inspections need to be reviewed periodically to identify any common features and trends. Also, the frequency of inspection may need to be varied, depending on findings.

Monitoring - active & reactive measures

Active measures give feedback about performance before incidents are experienced. Obviously this is preferable, assuming action can be taken to prevent incidents occurring. An additional benefit is that active monitoring measures success and reinforces positive achievement. Active measures usually consider the following:

* Achievement of specific plans and objectives
* Operation of a health and safety management system
* Compliance with standards and procedures
* Site condition inspection
* Environmental monitoring
* Health surveillance
* Behavioural observation

Reactive monitoring is triggered by events including

* Injuries
* Ill health
* Property damage
* Incidents with potential to cause harm
* Hazard reports
* Complaints

In reality reactive measures are more tangible than active, and for this reason many organisations remain fixated with them. Also, it is fair to say the occurrence of an incident does focus the mind more than some active measures can ever achieved. However, whilst reactive measures still give the opportunity to learn a great deal, these opportunities often occur after someone has been injured.

Monitoring, review and audit

Organisations need to monitor their performance to assess how well they are controlling risks. A low accident rate is not necessarily a sign that all risks are being managed, and so measures of performance need to be more wide ranging.

Audit is a formalised method of investigating a systems performance.

Of course it is no good collecting information if nothing is done with it to correct deficiencies. Organisations need to review the data information they have from all sources and act on it.

Formal reporting

The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 require certain specified occurrences to be reported to HSE. They include:

* Death
* Major injury (as specified, including significant fractures, amputation, dislocation etc.)
* Over-three three day injury
* Reportable disease (as specified, including certain poisoning, skin and lung diseases, infection, cancer)
* Dangerous occurrence (as specified, including failure of lifting equipment, explosion, collapse of scaffolding etc.)

The regulations place duties on employers, self-employed and people in control of work premises .

Reference

Investigating ill health

In theory, instances of ill health associated with work should be reported, investigated, analysed and recorded in the same way as any incident. If the ill health arose because of a specific incident, and occurred soon after this is usually straightforward. The trouble is that a lot of ill health cannot be attributed to a specific incident and it can come on gradually.

The main concern is that it is important to find out the direct and underlying causes of ill health so that action can be taken to prevent recurrence. Therefore, it is essential that instances of ill health caused by work are reported and that this in turn initiated the investigation process. The skills required to investigate and analyse are likely to be different to those for incidents, and this needs to be considered as part of the team competence.

Incidents - records

The whole point of reporting, investigating and analysing incidents is to contribute to the 'corporate knowledge' of an organisation, which gives an understand of how the organisation functions and its weaknesses. A recording system is required to achieve this that:

* Collects information accurately
* Presents information in a consistent form
* Enables analysis of trends
* Records information that might be useful in the future (e.g. to avoid making the same mistakes when designing a new plant)
* Alert others to a problem

Incidents - analysing

The analysis of incidents is often considered to be part of the investigation. This may make some sense, but has a number of potential problems. In particular starting the analysis before the investigation is complete can lead people to 'jump to conclusion,' which may result in them collecting evidence that supports a conclusion that may not be valid. Therefore, although they may well be carried out partly in parallel, it is useful to differentiate between investigation and analysis.

An analysis of an incident involves looking at the evidence collected to identify the causes of an incident. These causes are generally broken into two distinct categories:

* Immediate causes - features of premises, plant, substances, procedures and people that created a hazard or contributed to the incident. Often considered as unsafe conditions and actions
* Underling causes - failures of planning, risk assessment, control, cooperation, communication, competence, monitoring and review that resulted in the immediate causes being present and/or not dealt with. These are typically management and organisational failures.


As a result of the analysis it is important that recommendations are developed to address the underlying causes. This means it is not only the exact incident that can be prevented, but that a general improvement is safety can be achieved. To do this it is often necessary to consider previous incidents to identify any trends that indicate a wider problem than may be apparent from a single incident.

As with investigation, it is usually best if a team carry out the analysis. Once again competence in analysis tools and techniques should be held by the team.

Incidents - investigation

Incidents should be investigated so that organisation can exactly what happened so that they can

* Understand why substandard performance occurred
* Identify underlying failures in health and safety management
* Learn from events
* Prevent recurrence
* Satisfy legal requirements

Investigations should commence as soon after an incident as possible. The main aim at this stage is to collect evidence. This can be in the form of:

* Information about the scene (photo and sketches of the scene)
* Physical items (equipment, parts, fragments, substances)
* Clinical (samples of breath, urine or blood)
* Environmental (samples from air, water, soil)
* Documents
* Data print outs
* CCTV footage
* Interviews with people involved and witnesses

This evidence can then arranged to develop a time-line of what happened before, during and after the incident.

It is usually best to have a team of people involved in an investigation. This is partly because of the potential workload, but also because a number of skills are likely to be required. There are tools and techniques that can assist in investigation, and competence in these should be held by the team (i.e. by one or more individuals)

Incidents - reporting

Whilst the immediate priority following is an incident is to minimise harm, it is also important that the incident is reported so that any necessary longer term actions required can be implemented.

As well as forming a record of the incident, a key part of reporting is to determine what level of investigation is required.

Companies usually have incident report forms where basic information can be recorded including date and time, people involved, consequences, ongoing activities and conditions at the time of the incident.

When there have been obvious consequences of an incident, getting it reported is not usually an issue. However, for near misses or where is it possible to cover up the consequences, under reporting is a problem. The reasons why people may not report an incident include:

* They do not know it is a requirement
* They do not understand why it is necessary
* They feel it is a waste of time (especially if it is perceived that nothing has ever happened in the past as the result of reporting incidents)
* They are worried that their may be reprisals for themselves or others (if it is perceived that people have been unfairly blamed or punished in the past)

There is a significant cultural element to whether incidents are reported. In particular, people need to feel there is a fair and just culture, and one where the root causes of incidents are identified properly.

Incidents - immediate response

By definition (see previous post) the occurrence of an accident means someone has been hurt, and they will need to be attended to. Even where someone has not been hurt, the occurrence of an incident means that something unplanned has occurred, and this may have created a hazard. Therefore robust procedures and arrangements are required to respond to incidents.

The purpose of emergency procedures is to mobilise the appropriate resources to minimise the harm caused by an incident. There are clearly different levels of response, ranging from local personnel responding through to calling in some or all of the emergency services.

Wherever possible, part of the immediate response should be to preserve the scene of the incident so that it can be investigated.

If there has been a fatality or very serious injury the police must be notified.

Incidents - overall response

When an incident occurs there are a number of activities that need to be carried out

* Protect personnel, the environment and property (emergency procedures and making safe)
* Report and determine the level of investigation required
* Investigate the incident (gather data)
* Analyse the incident (use data to determine the cause)
* Capture and act on lessons learnt

Incidents, accidents and near misses

There are many definitions for these terms, and not all agree. However, the following seem to work quite well

An incident is an unintended event that did, or had the potential to cause harm

An accident is an incident that did cause harm

A near-miss is an incident that did not cause harm

Work on or near water

Whenever someone is working near water or on water (sea, river, lake, pond) the risk of drowning must be considered. Obviously it is most important that the likelihood of them falling in the water is minimised by providing barriers, working platforms, harness and lines etc.

Where the risk of falling into water cannot be eliminated it is important to consider the provision of buoyancy aids and rescue plans. Cheap and simple buoyancy aids tend to be bulky, and so generally not suitable for anyone doing any work. More practical buoyancy aids are likely to have a self-inflating mechanism, and it is essential that these are properly maintained and checked before use. It is also important that people know how to use them.

Drowning is not the only hazard of falling into water. Hypothermia can set in if someone is in cold water for sometime (within 30 minutes). Also, there are some animal born diseases that are commonly found near water (e.g. leptospirosis causing Weils disease)

Reference

Construction & demolition sites

In theory, there is nothing different about the hazards and risk associated on a construction site when compared with any other site. However, the nature of activity creates a degree of complexity and accident statistics show how difficult managing safety is.

The Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996 (CHSW Regulations) cover a wide range of health and safety problems , including:

* The prevention of falls,
* Dropped objects,
* Protecting against collapse of buildings and structures
* Excavations,
* Drowning,
* Provisions for higher risk trades such as roofing, demolition and structural erection.
* Emergency and fire procedures,
* Transport routes.,
* Provision of welfare facilities

Demolition

The opposite of construction, but similar approaches are required to manage the risks. Specific issues to be aware of include:

* Exposure of people to hazardous materials within the building or structure being demolished (e.g. asbestos);
* Unpredictability of where material will fall - requiring adequate exclusion zones
* Potential to impact on members of the public
* Hazards from the method of demolition used (especially if using explosives)

As with construction, good planning is essential.

The CDM regulations apply to demolition.

Construction - CDM regulations

Construction (Design and Management) (CDM) Regulations (1994) apply to most common building, civil engineering and engineering construction work. You must notify HSE in writing before starting construction site if the work is expected to either
* Last longer than 30 days; or
* Involve more than 500 person days of construction work

Under the regulations The client has a duty to

* Appoint a planning supervisor
* Ensure that the planning supervisor is provided with health and safety information about the premises or site where construction work is to be carried out.
* Appoint a principal contractor.
* Ensure (as far a reasonably practicable) that appointments are competent and fulfil their duties.

Appointments need to be made in a timely manner so that there is time to develop suitable health and safety plans before construction begins.

A planning supervisor has responsibility for co-ordinating the health and safety aspects of design and for ensuring a pre-tender health and safety plan is prepared.

A principal contractor has responsibility for co-ordinating health and safety aspects during the construction phase.

The planning supervisor is required to prepare a safety file for the project. This should include any of the following where appropriate:

* ‘Record’ or ‘as built’ drawings and plans used and produced throughout the construction process;
* The design criteria;
* General details of the construction methods and materials used;
* Details of the equipment and maintenance facilities within the structure;
* Maintenance procedures and requirements for the structure;
* Manuals produced by specialist contractors and suppliers which outline operating and
maintenance procedures and schedules for plant and equipment installed as part of the structure;
* Details of the location and nature of utilities and services, including emergency and fire-fighting systems.

The client must be given the safety file at the end of the project and take reasonable steps to ensure that the it is kept available for inspection by those considering future construction work.

There are proposals to amend the CDM regulations (possibly sometime in 2007). The aim is to simplify the process, and whilst it seems the duties of those involved are unlikely to change the regulations are likely to make the requirements of duties more explicit or clear. One key change seems to be to redefine the 'planning supervisor' role to become 'co-ordinator'

Construction - health and safety during construction

Construction activity is inherently hazardous, and so good health and safety planning is essential. Plans should be developed that cover:

* The arrangements for the management of health and safety of the construction work;
* The monitoring systems for checking that the health and safety plan is being followed;
* Health and safety risks to those at work, and others, arising from the construction work, and from other work in premises where construction work may be carried out.

Construction - pre-tender

Making provision for safety can be expensive, and if not properly budgeted for it may not happen. Because of the competitive nature of tendering for construction work, it is important that principles contractors have full information about hazards and risks at the time of preparing their bid. That way they can prepare a safe schedule of work and therefore specify a realistic price.

Construction - parties involved

There are a number of parties involved in construction. All have a part to play in safety, and this requires them to cooperate.

Parties include
* The client - the person who has commissioned the work
* Designers - people who influence what is built
* Principle contractor
* Sub-contractors

Because of the number of parties, someone will typically need to take responsibility for co-ordinating the construction.

Confined space entry

A confined space is any space of an enclosed nature where there is a risk of death or serious
injury from hazardous substances or dangerous conditions (eg lack of oxygen). They include
* Storage tanks, silos and vessels;
* Enclosed drains and sewers;
* Open-topped chambers;
* Combustion chambers in furnaces etc;
* Ductwork;
* Unventilated or poorly ventilated rooms;
* Excavations

Hazards include lack of oxygen, hazardous substances either from the previous contents of the space or the work being carried out (e.g. fumes), flammable atmospheres and hot working conditions. Also, it must be recognised that rescuing someone from a confined space can be difficult due to poor access. Confined space entry must be carefully planned and controlled.

Factors to consider when planning confined space entry include

* Is it necessary?
* Are the people suitable for the task (competence and health)?
* Isolating the space from all potential sources of hazard
* Cleaning the space
* Ensuring a large enough entry
* Providing ventilation
* Testing air quality
* Provision of special tools
* Lighting
* Use of breathing apparatus if there is a risk of the air becoming unbreathable (but this must not be instead of isolation, cleaning etc.)
* Emergency plan
* Rescue equipment
* Communications

Reference

Rope access

Rope access is a method of working at height, developed from techniques used in climbing and caving. Typical jobs carried out using rope access include inspection and testing, maintenance, painting, cleaning structures and windows.

It can be hazardous, so people are have to be competent and apply rigorous safety precautions. These include

* Use of two attachments, each having an independent anchorage point.
* When supported by ropes, use of fail-safe descent mechanism.
* All secondary tools and equipment (e.g. drills, sealant, etc.) are attached by lanyards to worker's harness.
* A minimum of two technicians are required for any job.
* Training in rescue procedures.
* All equipment is regularly inspected and maintained.

Reference

Working at height - mobile elevating work platforms

The following equipment is considered to be a MEWP:
* Vehicle mounted, articulated and telescopic booms
* Self propelled articulated and telescopic booms
* Trailer mounted articulated and telescopic booms
* Scissor lifts

Often known as 'cherry pickers' they are useful for working at height.

Problems with MEWPs include
* Collapsing
* Overturning
Ÿ* Persons being thrown from the carrier
Ÿ* Carrier being trapped against fixed structures
* People being crushed by them

The risk of falling from a MEWP is increased by a sudden movement caused by an impact, ground movement, or failure of a stability critical part of the MEWP. Some form of lanyard or other protection can prevent these events causing injury.

Issues to consider are really a combination of access to height, vehicle use, lifting operation and use of work equipment. In particular;

* Stability and slope of ground
* Hidden underground voids
* Overhead cables
* Vehicle collision
* Engine acting as ignition source
* Engine fumes creating a hazard (e.g. confined space)
* Formal inspection of equipment
* User checks

The correct equipment needs to be selected and operators must be competent.

Working at height - scaffolding

Scaffolding provides a means of working at height. However, erecting scaffolding can be hazardous in its own right, and the safety of the people using it depends on how it is design , erected and maintained whilst in place.

There are codes of practice that cover scaffolding, including use of fall arrest equipment whilst it is being erected or altered.

Key requirements for safe use of scaffolding include:* It must only be erected or modified by competent people;* It must be designed for the intended use by competent people* Handling various components (poles etc.) can cause hazard due to weight, dropped items or knocking people over.

* It must be inspected by a competent person before first use, after modification, after an event that may have affected its integrity (e.g. adverse weather) and at 7 day intervals
* Scaffolding must be erected on firm, level ground of foundations (beware of hidden voids, drains etc.)
* Beware of overhead cables
* Protect against vehicle impact
* If intended to take loads, it must be designed and constructed accordingly
* If intended to be sheeted, it must be design and constructed to withstand wind load
* Working platforms must be properly supported and large enough for people to work (minimum width 600mm)
* Guardrails should be provided at working platforms to prevent people falling (approximately 1m high, with intermediate guard rails provided so gaps are less than 470mm)
* Toe boards should be provided on working platforms to prevent materials falling (minimum height 150 mm)
* Safe ladder or other access must be provided
* Arrangements need to be made for raising and lowering of materials
* Make sure ends and other parts are easy to see so people do not walk into them
* Mark incomplete sections so that they are not use
* Prevent unauthorised access by removing ladders or covering rungs

For stability, the scaffold should usually be tied in to the structure being built or worked on. There are different types of tie:

* Through tie - scaffold pole is extended through an opening (e.g. window) and then arrangements are made so that pressure is applied to the wall opposite to the scaffolding (i.e. on the inside of the building if the scaffold in on the outside)
* Reveal tie - again in an opening, but pole is wedged horizontally into the opening and screw devices used to tighten the gap so that friction is used stop the pole moving
* Box tie - attached around a pillar or similar structure
* Eye bolts - screwed into the wall onto which scaffold is attached
* Putlog - poles with flattened ends which are inserted into gaps between brick courses

Where ties are not possible, angled supports can be used to support the scaffold.

Working at height - mobile access towers

Mobile access towers come in sections that are fitted together to create a platform for working at height. They can be very useful, avoiding the need for scaffolding, but have their limitations. They are usually quite light-weight, and so prone to toppling over. Also, they may not be particularly strong.

Manufacturers of towers have a duty to provide the information necessary to use them safely. This includes how they fit together, maximum height, use of stabilisers. Clearly they should only be used in accordance with these instructions.

Other points to note include:

* Only erect on firm, level ground
* Beware of overhead cables
* Protect against vehicle impact
* Do not put on blocks or bricks
* Make sure caster (wheels) are locked when being built or in use
* Do not attach any sheeting, unless designed for that use (wind can blow tower over)
* Only hoist material from the tower in line with design
* Ensure there is a safe way to get to the top. Some towers are designed to be climbed, others have ladders built in
* Never use a tower as a support for ladders, trestles or other access equipment;
* Do not use in weather conditions likely to make the tower unstable (wind, rain affecting ground)
* Beware of overhead cables when moving the tower - reduce height to below 4 metres
* Do not use powered vehicles to move towers

href=http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/cis10.pdf>Reference

Working at height - ladders

Some people mistakenly believe that ladders and step-ladders are banned under the work at height regulations. This is not the case. However, it is important to recognise that people die every year falling from ladders, and so their use needs to be controlled.

* Ladders and step-ladders can be used if after assessing the risks the use of more suitable work equipment is not justified because of the low risk and short duration.
* Short duration is taken to be less than 30 minutes
* They should only be used for light work (less than 10kg)
* Ladders can also be used for low risk work where there are features on the site that mean a ladder must be used.

Precautions for using ladders include:

* Ladder angle 75o – 1 in 4 rule (1 unit out for every 4 units up)
* Always grip the ladder when climbing
* Do not overreach
* Do not work off the top three rungs – this provides a handhold
* Carry out daily pre-use check (feet included)
* Ensure there is space to fully open the ladder
* Use any locking devices
* Ground should be firm and level
* Floors should be clean, not slippery

Precautions for using step ladders include:
* Do not work off the top two steps unless you have a safe handhold on the steps
* Avoid side-on working
* Do not overreach

Reference

Contruction - designers

Part of the problem with the construction industry is that safety is not considered when buildings and other structures are designed. This is a fundamental flaw that can result in injury to construction workers, and have an impact on future users and maintainers. To avoid this it is important that building designers

* Eliminate hazards where feasible (eg. if specifying roof lights specify non-fragile materials);
* Reduce risks from those hazards that cannot be eliminated (eg. specify designs and coatings for materials at height to reduce the need/frequency for replacement, cleaning and re-painting);
* Provide information on residual risks if they are significant (eg. if a set sequence of assembly or demolition is required to maintain structural stability).

In order to do this a competent designer will need knowledge and experience of the construction process.

In this context a designers include architect, consulting engineers, quantity surveyors, building service engineers, temporary works engineers and others who specify the whats and the hows in detail.

Excavations

Excavations create a number of hazards closely related to working at height. In particular people can fall into the excavation and things can be dropped on people who are in the hole. There is no specific depth at which an excavation is considered to be dangerous, remembering that someone bending over or kneeling down in a shallow hole could be serious hurt if it collapses.

In addition excavations can become confined spaces, there is the potential for sides to cave in and for contact to be made with underground hazards including buried services and contaminated soil.

Precautions to cave in include angling the sides instead of making them verticle, making sure spoil from digging the excavtion is not left at the side and providing support using timber, sheeting or propriety systems.

The potential for buried services should be identified before starting the excavation. Where this risk is not zero precautions such as detectors/locators and digging of test trenches should be used.

A competent person must inspect excavations:
* At the start of each shift before work begins;
* After any event likely to have affected the strength or stability of the excavation; and
* After any accidental fall of rock, earth or other material.

A written report should be made after most inspections.

Of course there are also hazards associated with the method used to create the excavation. Doing it by hand creates manual handling issues whilst alternative methods usually involve the use of vehicles.

Working at height

People falling from height are at risk of injury. Even falls from low heights can cause serious injury, although the greater the distance fallen is clearly a factor in the actual consequences.

Before carrying out work at height the first question must always be whether it can be avoided. If not, it is important that the work is planned properly and the risks assessed. Good organisation and competent people are required.

Planning the work should include the following:

* Selection of the correct method of access (e.g. ladder, scaffold tower, scaffolding, mobile elevating work platform (MEWP))
* Measures to prevent falls (e.g. guardrails)
* Mitigation that reduces distance fallen or impact for anyone who may fall (e.g. nets and airbags)
* Personal mitigation that an individual can use (e.g. line and harness or fall arrestor).

The Work at Height Regulations 2005 apply to all work at height where there is a risk of a fall liable to cause personal injury. There is no minimum height specified (in the past people have referred to the 2 metre rule, but this does not apply)

Duties are placed on employers, the self-employed, and any person that controls the work of others (for example facilities managers or building owners who may contract others to work at height). They include:

* avoid work at height where they can;
* use work equipment or other measures to prevent falls where they cannot avoid working at height;
* where they cannot eliminate the risk of a fall, use work equipment or other measures to minimise the distance and consequences of a fall should one occur.

Specific issues covered by the regulations include:
* all work at height is properly planned and organised;
* all work at height takes account of weather conditions that could endanger
health and safety;
* those involved in work at height are trained and competent;
* the place where work at height is done is safe;
* equipment for work at height is appropriately inspected;
* the risks from fragile surfaces are properly controlled; and
* the risks from falling objects are properly controlled.

The Regulations do not apply to the provision of paid instruction or leadership in caving or climbing by way of sport, recreation, team building or similar activities. There is a proposal to amend the regulations in the future so that they do apply to these activities.

Reference

Construction - hazards

A lot of people get hurt and killed on construction sites every year. The reality is that there are few hazards that only occur on construction sites, but the problem is that due to the nature of activity control.

The things that happen to people include:

* They fall off things
* They fall into holes
* They trip over things
* Things are dropped on them
* They are squashed by moving equipment and vehicles
* They are exposed to hazardous substances (especially asbestos, dust and solvents in adhesives and paints)
* They come into contact with electricity
* They get hurt during manual handling

One crucial difference is that the quality of an individuals work can impact on someone else's health and safety, possibly sometime after the construction work is complete. This may be during use of the building, maintaining or even demolishing it. For this reason the the way buildings and other structures are designed and constructed needs careful consideration.

Stress

Stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them. Whilst pressure is part and parcel of all work and helps to keep us motivated, it is excessive pressure that can lead to stress. Stress undermines performance, is costly to employers and can make people ill.

The primary sources of stress at work include:
* High demands – workload, work patterns and the work environment.
* Lack of control – how much say the person has in the way they do their work.
* Lack of support – encouragement, sponsorship and resources provided by the organisation, line management and colleagues.
* Poor relationships – conflict and how unacceptable behaviour is dealt with.
* Poorly defined roles – how people understand their role whether there are conflicting roles.
* Poorly managed change – how organisational change (large or small) is managed and communicated in the organisation.

Organisations should have systems in place to manage stress. This should include a policy, organisation and arrangements to identify potential stress (through risk assessment), actual stress (sickness rates) and deal with it. Also, proactive monitoring stress, often through the use of staff surveys.

Reference

A safe place to work

The following fall into the general category of safety

* Lighting must be sufficient for people to work safely.
* People need enough space. As a minimum 11m3 per person (with any height above 3m being considered as 3m for this calculation)
* Floors and traffic routes must be sound and strong enough. Not have holes, not be slippery or obstructed
Handrails provided for stairways
* Clear/glass doors must be arranged so people are not liable to walk into them and protected against breaking
* It must be possible to clean windows safely
* Doors that swing both ways must allow people to see through so people behind are not hurt
* Escalators and moving walkways must be of safe design and condition, and have emergency stop buttons.

Reference

Welfare and hygiene

People cannot remain healthy at work if there basic welfare needs are not catered for. This includes the following:

* Toilets
* Facilities to wash (including showers where necessary)
* Drinking water supply
* Place to eat
* Place to change and store clothes (if work clothes are required)
* Rest facilities for pregnant ladies (i reasonably practicable)

It is important to recognise that people eating with dirty hands can result in them ingesting hazardous materials. Also, that dirty clothes can mean people taking hazardous materials into their car, home to family etc.

Facilities have to be kept clean, in good condition and supplied with materials (e.g. toilet paper, soap). Also, rooms need to be well ventilated and at a reasonable temperature (not too hot or cold).

This is covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992

Display Screen Equipment

DSE can contribute to WRULD. Also, tired or sore eyes, and headaches (especially for people who wear contact lenses or bi-focal glasses).

As well as the physical layout of the workstation, the screen can have glare or poor image quality.

People using DSE can suffer from stress due to the expected pace of work or anxiety about new technology.

There is no evidence to suggest radiation from screens is a problem, even for pregnant ladies. A few people claim skin problems, but this is more likely to be with air quality (that may be affected by electrical equipment) rather than the DSE itself. A small number of epileptics may have problems.

The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 are commonly known as the DSE Regulations. They require that operators or users have:

* Adequate training and information;
* Proper breaks or changes of activity;
* Work stations suitable for them which meet, where necessary, the standards in the schedule; and
* Eye tests if they request them.


Reference

Work Related Upper Limb Disorders

WRULD, sometimes known as repetitive strain injury (although not always as the result of strain hence use of term WRULD).

They are problems with the shoulder and arm, including the forearm, elbow, wrist, hand and fingers. ULDs can include neck pain.

Any type of work that involves a worker using their arms to carry out tasks, can lead to ULDs. Computer use and assembly work are frequently associated with ULDs, but there are many other tasks that may have higher risks.

Symptoms include tenderness, aches and pain, stiffness, weakness, tingling, numbness, cramp, or swelling.

Risk factors include:

* Repeating an action
* Uncomfortable working position
* Using a lot of force
* Carrying out a task for a long period of time
* Poor working environment
* Psychosocial issues (lack of control or status)

In finding solutions it is important to recognise that people are different sizes, have different abilities and some have disabilities.

Reference

Neck and back pain

Neck and back pain can arise in many situations, but the following are known to commonly cause problems:

* heavy manual labour;
* manual handling in awkward places;
* repetitive tasks;
* sitting at a workstation for a long time (especially if not set up properly)
* driving long distances or over rough ground.
* stooping, bending over or crouching, including work at PCs (poor posture);
* pushing, pulling or dragging excessive loads;
* stretching, twisting and reaching;
* prolonged periods in one position, leading to postural strain;
* situations where the whole body is subjected to vibration, jolting and jarring.

As with many ill health conditions, some people are more susceptible to back pain than others.

Reference HSE webpage

Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of objects, systems and environment for human use. The aim is to use this information ensure comfort, efficiency, productivity and safety. Ergonomics comes into everything which involves people. In a phrase, the job must ‘fit the person’ in all respects, and the work situation should not compromise human capabilities and limitations.

Ergonomics covers anatomy, physiology and psychology.

Ergonomics society

Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapour in air. Levels are usually quoted as relative humidity, which is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at that air temperature

High relative humidity (>80%) starts to prevent evaporation of sweat from the body. This evaporation is a major way of regulating body temperature. Therefore, high humidity can contribute to heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

Humidity is particularly a concern when people are required to wear extra clothing (i.e. in the form of personal protective equipment PPE). In this case the humidity inside clothing can be significantly higher than outside.

Humidity is covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992.

Temperature

Working in conditions that are too hot can cause:

* Heat stress - can affect someones ability to work, potentially leading to heat exhaustion and heat stroke (can result in unconsciousness and can be fatal)
* Dehydration

Working in cold conditions can cause:

* Cold stress
* Hypo-thermia

Temperatures in the workplace are covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992. Employers must provide a “reasonable” temperature in the workplace.

The ACOP suggests a minimum temperature in workrooms should normally be at least 16 degrees Celsius, or 13 degrees Celsius if much of the work indoors involves severe physical effort.

A meaningful figure cannot be given at the upper end of the scale because other factors have an affect including radiant temperature, humidity and air velocity.

Vibrations

There are two main concerns regarding vibration

1. Whole body vibration
2. Hand arm vibration

Whole-body vibration is shaking or jolting of the human body through a supporting surface (usually a seat or the floor), for example when driving or riding on a vehicle along an unmade road, operating earthmoving machines or standing on a structure attached to a large, powerful, fixed machine which is impacting or vibrating. It can cause back pain, often by aggravating a previous problem.

Hand-arm vibration can be caused by operating hand-held power tools (e.g. road breakers), hand-guided equipment (e.g. powered lawnmowers) or by holding materials being processed by machines (e.g. using pedestal grinders).

Regular and frequent exposure to hand-arm vibration can lead to permanent health effects (occasional exposure is unlikely to cause ill health). Symptoms include
* Tingling and numbness in the fingers;
* Not being able to feel things properly;
* Loss of strength in the hands;
* The fingers going white (blanching) and becoming red and painful on recovery
(particularly in the cold and wet, and probably only in the tips at first).
* Continued exposure can mean people cannot use their fingers properly, especially in cold conditions.

The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations require employers to:
* Assess the vibration risk to employees;
* Decide if they are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure action value (EAV), and if so introduce a programme of controls to eliminate risk, or reduce exposure to as low; and provide health surveillance
* Decide if they are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure limit value (ELV) and if they are take immediate action to reduce their exposure below the limit value;
* Provide information and training to employees on health risks and the actions you are taking to control those risks;
* Consult trade union safety representative or employee representative on your proposals to control risk and to provide health surveillance;
* Keep a record of risk assessment and control actions;
* Keep health records for employees under health surveillance;
* Review and update your risk assessment regularly.

The exposure action value (EAV) is a daily amount of vibration exposure above which employers are required to take action to control exposure. For hand-arm vibration the EAV is a daily exposure of 2.5 m/s2 A(8) and for whole body vibration 0.5 m/s2 A(8)

The exposure limit value (ELV) is the maximum amount of vibration an employee may be exposed to on any single day. For hand-arm vibration the ELV is a daily exposure of 5 m/s2 A(8) and for whole body vibration 1.15 m/s2 A(8)

Whole body vibration Reference

Hand- arm vibration Reference

Noise

Noise at work can cause hearing loss. This may be temporary, but continued exposure, or short term exposure to very high noise can cause permanent damage.

Other problems occurring to exposure to high levels noise include tinnitus (ringing, whistling, buzzing or humming in the ears). Also, it must be remembered that working in a noisy environment makes communication difficult and may even mean people cannot hear warnings and alarms.

Noise levels are measured in Decibels (dB). Limits are set for short and long term exposure.

Covered by the Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005. They require employers to:
* Assess the risks to their employees from noise at work;
* Take action to reduce the noise exposure that produces those risks;
* Provide employees with hearing protection if the noise exposure cannot be reduced enough using other methods;
* Make sure the legal limits on noise exposure are not exceeded;
* Provide employees with information, instruction and training;
* Carry out health surveillance where there is a risk to health.

Legal limits are defined in three categories
1. Lower exposure action values:
– daily or weekly exposure of 80 dB;
– peak sound pressure of 135 dB;

2. Upper exposure action values:
– daily or weekly exposure of 85 dB;
– peak sound pressure of 137 dB.

3. Maximum exposure limit values (that must not be exceeded):
– daily or weekly exposure of 87 dB;
– peak sound pressure of 140 dB.

Key element of the regulations is that noise levels should be reduced before considering hearing protection.

Employees have a duty to co-operate with their employers in protecting hearing, including wearing hearing protection provided.

Reference

Non-ionising radiation

Non-ionising electromagnetic radiation (NIEMR) is the term used to describe the part of the electromagnetic spectrum covering two main regions, namely optical radiation (ultraviolet (UV), visible and infrared) and electromagnetic fields (EMFs) (power frequencies, microwaves and radio frequencies).

Some common sources of Optical Radiation are the sun, sunbeds and lasers, arc welding (arc eye)

* Exposure of the eyes to UV radiation can damage the cornea and produce pain and symptoms similar to that of sand in the eye. The effects on the skin range from redness, burning and accelerated ageing through to various types of skin cancer.
* High-power lasers can cause serious damage to the eye (including blindness) as well as producing skin burns.


Typical sources of EMFs are generated by electrical supply equipment and telecommunications systems. They include microwaves (i.e. oven). Exposure of people to high levels of EMFs can give rise to acute effects. The effects depend on the frequency, with low frequencies affecting the central nervous system whilst high frequencies causing heating effects that can lead to a rise in body temperature. In reality, these effects are extremely rare and will not occur in most day-to-day work situations

Ionising radiation

Ionising radiation occurs as either electromagnetic rays (such as X-rays and gamma rays) or particles (such as alpha and beta particles). It occurs naturally (e.g. from the radioactive decay of natural radioactive substances such as radon gas and its decay products) but can also be produced artificially. Everyone receives some exposure to natural background radiation.

It is used or occurs in the following work settings

* Medicine (for diagnosis and treatment)
* Industry (for measurement and non-destructive testing)
* Power generation
* Research and teaching

Exposure to ionising radiation can cause alter human cells. It can cause radiation bunrs, poisoning and lead to cancer. It can be dangerous to unborn babies.

Exposure from a source. Alternatively, ingesting radioactive material, which can be particularly bad because it is difficult to stop the exposure.

Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999 require employers to make exposure is restricted as far as reasonable practicable and is kept below dose limits. They require the appointment of Radiation Protection Advisers who have to achieve competence in the management of risk due to ionising radiation.

Classified people have a legal duty to wear a dosemeter

Physical & psycological health hazards

The following can cause physical and/or psycologucal harm

* Ionising and non-ionising radiation
* Noise
* Vibrations
* High or low temperatures
* High humidity
* Poor ergonomics - body position
* Repetitive actions
* Fatigue
* Stress

Carcinogens

The following are specified as carcinogens

Carcinogens of concern
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
* Ferrous foundry particulate
* Wood dust
* Rubber fume/rubber process dust
* Sulphuric acid mist
* Aromatic amines (in particular MbOCA and MDA)
* TGIC
* Beryllium and compounds
* Nickel and compounds
* Hexavalent chromium and compounds

Carcinogens of possible concern
* Refractory ceramic fibres and special purpose fibres
* Leather dust in footwear manufacture
* Plastic processing fume (as product of de-polymerising of plastic)
* Dyestuffs Auramine manufacture, Magenta manufacture, and dyes based on certain diazo bases, dichlorobenzidine
* Nitrosamines arising from processes
* Hydrazine and its salts
* Epichlorohydrin
* Dimethylsulphamoyl chloride,
* 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine,
* Dimethylcarbamoylchloride,
* 1,3-propanesultone,
* 1,4-dichlorobut-2-ene,
* Ethyleneimine
* Dimethyl sulphate
* Chlorodimethylether and bis(chloromethyl)ether
* Styrene oxide

Carcinogens of low concern
* Diesel engine exhaust emissions (DEEE)
* Benzene
* Vinyl chloride monomer
* Trichloroethylene
* Arsenic
* Cadmium
* Ethylene oxide

Reference

Acids and alkalis

Acids and alkali's are corrosive materials with multiple uses, including cleaning products.

Acids include eg hydrochloric acid (HCI), hydrofluoric acid (HF), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

Alkali's include sodium hydroxide (NaOH - caustic soda) and potassium hydroxide (KOH - caustic potash )

They can cause serious ill health mainly by:
1. Skin contact: acids and alkali's cause burns which are often slow to heal; and
2. Inhaling fumes or mist: concentrated solutions of acids and alkali's may give off toxic and corrosive fumes. Spray application produces a mist which may also be toxic and corrosive.

Reference

Isocyanates

Organic isocyanates exist as liquids or solids at room temperature and are soluble in aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrobenzene, acetone, ethers and esters. They are highly reactive compounds, and react exothermally with water, alcohols and amines.

Examples include toluene (used in the production of flexible elastomers and polyurethane foams), and 4,4’-methylenebis(phenyl isocyanate) used to make rigid foams and is employed in the foundry industry as a core binder.

Isocyanates are found in some printing inks, paints and adhesives.

The critical health effect associated with isocyanates is respiratory sensitisation. In higher doses, isocyanates can cause irritation to the eyes, skin and respiratory system. After periods of exposure, the worker may become responsive to extremely low
concentrations. The inhalation of isocyanates has been associated with a range of complaints, including coughing, wheezing, chest discomfort, acute oedema and interstitial pulmonary fibrosis, as well as covert decrement of lung function.

Reference

Trichloroethylene

Trichloroethylene is used in a large number of workplaces, particularly as a powerful solvent for surface degreasing for the cleaning of metal parts. It is classed as a category 2 carcinogen, which means it 'may cause cancer.'

Category 1 and 2 carcinogens are subject to specific requirements under COSHH. Employers must first consider whether it is reasonably practicable to prevent exposure to a carcinogen by using an alternative substance or process and, if not, whether it is
reasonably practicable to enclose the process totally.

Reference

Benzene

Benzene occurs naturally in crude oil, and so people working in associated industries may be exposed (including small concentrations in petrol).

Harm can be caused by inhalation of vapour, contact with skin or ingestion. Symptoms include headache, tiredness, nausea and dizziness; and unconsciousness if high concentration. Over longer term, serious blood disorders such as anaemia and leukaemia (form of cancer) can occur.

Reference

Mercury

Is a metal, but liquid at room temperature. It has an appreciable vapour pressure at room temperature meaning mercury vapour is released and so can be inhaled. Mercury can be absorbed through the skin.

Mercury has a number of unusual properties which mean it has a variety of uses including:

* A cathode in electrolysis of brine to create chlorine
* Temperature measurement devices
* Electrical switch gear
* Light bulbs
* As amalgam for dental uses
* Manufacture of many compounds.

Possible symptoms from an acute exposure include severe nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhoea, kidney damage and death.

Potential symptoms from a chronic exposure include inflammation of the mouth and gums, excessive salivation, loosening of the teeth, kidney damage, muscle tremors, jerky gait, spasms of the extremities, personality changes, depression, irritability and nervousness.

Reference

Lead

Lead is a toxic metal. Exposure is usually via inhalation of fumes, vapour or dust.

Symptoms of exposure include headaches, tiredness, irritability, constipation, nausea, stomach pains, anemia and weight loss. Prolonged exposure can cause damage to kidneys, nervous system and brain.

Unborn children are a particular concern, so any woman of child baring age must take particular care if exposure is possible.

Tests of concentration in blood can pick up exposure.

Reference

Hepatitis B & HIV

Both blood-borne infections. Hepatitis B causes severe jaundice and HIV causes failure of immune system.

Contracted through blood and bodily fluids.

Prevent puncture wounds, keep instruments clean/sterile and wear protective gloves, masks etc.

People at risk are health and emergency services personnel.

Leptospirosis - Weils disease

Caused by leptospira bacterium.

Symptoms similar to flu (fever, chills, muscular aches and pains). More rarely Weils disease which has symptoms of bruising of the skin, anaemia, sore eyes, nose bleeds and jaundice; and can cause organ failure and death.

Rats and cattle can carry the bacteria and it is present in their urine. Typically enters human body via through cuts and scratches

People susceptible include canal, sewer, farm and abattoir workers; and vets.

Can be immunised against. People at risk need to be informed about covering cuts and scratches and washing after potential exposure.

Legionnaires Disease

Causes illness with symptoms similar to pneumonia, and can be fatal for old/young/ill people

Caused by legionella bacteria. Present in airborne droplets that are then inhaled.

Air conditioning systems and cooling towers are common source of problem.

Controlled managing water temperatures so that bacteria does not survive and breed, testing for presence of bacteria and chemical dosing.

Asbestos

Asbestos attracts particular attention because it has had such a devastating effect for so many people.

There are three common types

1. White (chrysotile),
2. Brown (amosite)
3. Blue (crocidolite)

People working directly with asbestos are clearly at risk, but the main problem is that it had many applications, and this leads to exposure to others for many years after. Typical uses included:

* Pipe lagging,
* Ceiling tiles,
* Roof and wall sheeting (asbestos cement)
* Coatings sprayed on to steel structures to provide fire insulation
* Thermal insulation in lofts and walls
* Gaskets.

Illnesses caused by asbestos inhalation include

* Pneumoconiosis
* Asthma
* Asbestosis
* Mesothelioma
* Lung cancer.

Covered by the Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations. As ammended in 2002 create duty to manage asbestos by identifying where it is and assess risks. Then decide. whether to removed, encapsulate or leave. Need to keep a register of any that is left and monitor its condition.

Hazardous substances - regulations

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health regulations 2002 (COSHH) apply to chemical and biological hazards.

Requires employers to control exposure to hazardous substances to prevent ill health. They have to protect both employees and others who may be exposed.

There is an ACOP - L5

Hazardous substances - managing risks

1. Assess the risks to health from hazardous substances used in or created by your workplace activities.

2. Decide what precautions are needed whenever employees may be exposed to substances without

3. Prevent exposure. Where this is not reasonably practicable, then you must adequately control it.

4. Ensure that control measures are used and maintained

5. Monitor the exposure of employees to hazardous substances (if necessary).

6. Carry out appropriate health surveillance (where your assessment has shown this is necessary or required by regulations)

7. Prepare plans and procedures to deal with with accidents, incidents and emergencies

8. Ensure employees are properly informed, trained

Biological hazards - classifications

Substances considered to be biological hazards are any micro-organism, cell culture, or human endoparasite, whether or not genetically
modified, which may cause infection, allergy, toxicity or otherwise create a hazard to human health.

They are classified into hazard groups

1. Unlikely to cause human disease;
2. Can cause human disease and may be hazard to employees - unlikely to spread to the community and there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available;
3. Can cause severe human disease and may be a serious hazard to employees; it may spread to the community, but there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available;
4. Causes severe human disease and is a serious hazard to employees; it is likely to spread to the community and there is usually no effective prophylaxis or treatment available.

Reference

Chemicals - exposure limits

Workplace Exposure Limits (WEL) are set for a number of substances hazardous to health. They are the maximum concentrations of an airborne substance, averaged over a reference period, to which employees may be exposed by inhalation.

It is worth noting that even supposedly inert dusts (i.e. non-toxic) can cause health affects if inhaled, and so have a WEL of 10 mg/m3

WELs are listed in EH40/2005

Chemicals - hazardous classification

Chemicals can be classified in one or more of the following:

* Very toxic
* Toxic
* Harmful
* Corrosive
* Irritant
* Sensitising
* Carcinogenic
* Mutagenic
* Toxic for reproduction

Material Safety Data Sheets should be available for all hazardous chemicals being used or produced. As well as the classification, the sheets should include

* Chemical and physical properties
* Precautions for use
* First aid
* Fire fighting

Chemicals - toxicology

Chemicals can cause harm if they are

* Breathed in (inhaled) - can damage lungs or be enter blood stream via lungs
* Eaten or drunk (ingested) - if present in food/drink or on hands when hands are put in mouth
* Make contact with skin, eyes
* Absorbed through skin - go through to affect internal organs
* Injected into the body - includes accidental puncture wounds with contaminated item

The effects can be

* Local - only affect the part of the body exposed (skin, eyes, mouth, stomach, lungs)
* Systemic - spread through the body (blood, bones, liver, nervous system)
* Cumulative - may not have an effect on first exposure, but repeated exposure causes problems

Hazardous substances

Sources of hazardous substances include

* Substances used directly in work activities (e.g. adhesives, paints, cleaning agents);
* Substances generated during work activities (e.g. fumes from soldering and welding);
* Naturally occurring substances (e.g. grain dust);
* Biological agents such as bacteria and other micro-organisms.

Potential consequences of exposure include:

* Skin irritation or dermatitis as a result of skin contact;
* Asthma as a result of developing allergy to substances used at work;
* Losing consciousness as a result of being overcome by toxic fumes;
* Cancer, which may appear long after the exposure to the chemical that caused it;
* Infection from bacteria and other micro-organisms (biological agents).

Exposure can cause immediate effects or create longer term health problems (e.g. people become sensitised or develop cancer and other illnesses)

Also, people can have allergic reactions where immune system over-reacts to a substance that is safe for most people (e.g. food stuff).

Reference

Fire - regulations

From 1 October 2006 the Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 is Law.

The cornerstone of the regulations is fire risk assessment. through this the following need to be considered

* Preventing fire occurring
* Preventing fire spreading (design of premises as well as fire fighting)
* Ensuring people are adequately protected if a fire occurs - includes employees, visitors, neighbours and fire service personnel.

Emphasis is on the employer being responsible for managing risks from fire. To achieve this they need to have competence to assess and control the risks.

Fire - preventing

The main ways of preventing fire are by controlling fuels and ignition sources. In particular, suitable storage for highly flammable materials and selection of equipment in flammable hazardous areas.

Oxidising agents need to be handled carefully and kept away from flammable materials.

The possibility of arson must be considered, and keeping sites secure and free from rubbish and other flammable items is important.

Fire - detection and escape

People need to know there is a fire so that they can escape. Options for detection include:
* Smoke,
* Flame (UV)
* Heat
* Manual (e.g. break glass).

Factors that affect ease of escape include:

* Number of fire escapes (ideally always more than two independent safe routes from any location);
* Distance to exit
* Clutter on route
* Fire integrity of escape route - fire doors that close automatically
* Ability to open fire doors - must not be locked, open outwards
* Signage
* Emergency lighting
* (Safe) assembly points
* Knowledge of procedures - staff and visitors

In general, do not use lifts. Need to make provision for disabled people including physical, visual and deaf (cannot hear alarms).

Fire - extinguishing

Fires can be extinguished by eliminating any one side of the fire triangle. This usually involves cooling, creating a barrier between fuel and oxygen, using a chemical that interfere with fire process, or replacing oxygen with another non-flammable gas.

Types of extinguishing device include:

* Water from extinguisher, hose, sprinkler, deluge (cools)
* Foam (cools and seals over fuel) - good for liquids
* Power (chemical interference)
* Carbon dioxide (displaces air/oxygen) - good for electrical fires
* Fire blanket (smothers) - chip pans

Fire - spreading

Fire can spread by:

* Conduction - heat moving through solid material;
* Convection - heat moving through a fluid or gas (i.e. hot air rising)
* Radiation - emission of infra-red energy that can then be absorbed and cause items to get hot

Fire - sources of ignition

Include

* Sparks
* Flame
* Hot surfaces
* Friction
* Electricity (including static)
* Smoking material (e.g. cigarettes)

Fire - fuels

Include

* Solids
* Liquids
* Gas and vapour
* Oxidising agents - react with other substances to create flammable conditions, possibly without oxygen being present

Fire - hazards

Include

* Heat - causing burns
* Smoke and fumes
* Oxygen depletion
* Structural damage to buildings etc.

Fire

For a fire to occur you must have all three sides of the fire triangle present, namely

* Fuel
* Oxygen
* Heat

Eliminating any will prevent a fire or extinguish one that is already going.

Electricity - regulations

Electricity at work regulations 1989

The majority of the regulations are directed at hardware requirements. Installations are required to be of proper construction; conductors must be insulated or other precautions taken; there must be means of cutting off the power and means for electrical isolation

Electricity - first aid for electrocution

Summon help (999)
Isolate supply
If cannot isolate, move casualty using non-conducting pole or similar
Treat as per symptoms (breathing, heart)

Electricity - working on electrical systems

Anyone maintaining, repairing or interfering in some way with electrical equipment needs to be competent. Broadly speaking levels of competence are defined according to voltage (i.e. someone competent on low voltage may not be competent to work on high voltage).

Ideally the electrical supply will be positively isolated before potentially live conductors are exposed. Special precautions are required where isolation is not possible or cannot be proved.

Permit-to-work systems are often used so that work cannot start until isolation has been achieved.

Electricity - protecting people

The first consideration is whether a low voltage system can be used, so that the potential for harm is significantly reduced (e.g. battery or 110V). Also, it is important to remember that these can still act as an ignition source and still require a higher voltage supply at some point (i.e. mains to charge or provide supply to step down to 110V).

Other ways to protect include:

* Use of double insulated equipment - these have extra layers of insulation to prevent contact with live conductors
* Fuses that 'blow' if excess current flows
* Residual circuit devices that trip if current differs significantly between live and neutral
* Earthing conducting parts so they cannot become live if there is a fault and if there is low resistance in the earth, it will create a large current that should blow fuses or trip RCD
* Bonding conducting parts so that they keep the same voltage and so do not create differential

When using electrical equipment it is important to ensure
* Correct equipment being used for the job
* Equipment is in good order
* Cables are in good condition
* Connected to correctly rated supply
* Plug properly wired and secured
* Correct fuse in place

Only equipment designed for harsh environments should be used in them. These include
* Damp
* Dust and vapour

Electricity - voltage

It is the current that kills, but the voltage of the supply that causes the current to flow.

Batteries operate at low voltages and do not have the potential for electrocution.

So called 110V systems are often used for work equipment (yellow plugs). They are a 110V alternating current (AC) current with centre tapped earth. No electrocutions have been known with this arrangement.

Standard UK mains is 230V AC. This can cause fatal electrocution.

Industrial facilities may have significantly higher voltage supplies and users, and so require particular care and control.

Electricity - hazards

Electricity is essential to modern day living and working. It can be supplied to plant and equipment by battery, mains or generator.

Electricity is a hazard that needs to be controlled. It can cause:

* Burns
* Electric shock
* Ignition source

Electric shock can cause muscle contraction and can disrupt breathing and the heart. A very low current (30 mA) across the heart can be fatal in a short time (fraction of a second).

With alternating currents people can end up involuntarily gripping onto a conductor, which increases the time of exposure.

Getting an electric shock can cause other injuries if people jump back as a result, possibly falling from height.

Work equipment - PUWER regulations

Provision and use of work equipment reglations 1998

Very wide ranging covering almost every type of equipment used at work.

In general terms, the Regulations require that
equipment provided for use at work is:
* Suitable for the intended use;
* Safe for use, maintained in a safe condition and,
in certain circumstances, inspected to ensure
this remains the case;
* Used only by people who have received adequate
information, instruction and training; and
* Accompanied by suitable safety measures,
eg protective devices, markings, warnings.

There are a number of Approved Codes of practice including

L22 - PUWER
L112 - PUWER for power presses
L114 - PUWER for wood working equipment

Work equipment - on/off and other controls

Consideration needs to be given to how people are going to control the equipment. This includes:

* Starting - being in position to confirm safe to start before operating
* Stopping
* Stopping in emergency - may require quicker stop than normal and/or isolating from power source
* Making changes to direction, speed etc.

Work equipment - guards

Guards are put in place to keep people away from moving parts and to contain ejected hazards. Where guards cannot be used some other controls may be possible (e.g. keeping people away from the danger zone using barriers, procedures etc.)

A fixed guard is attached to the machine and forms a physical barrier between person and hazard. They may be attached in a way that requires a special tool to remove. They are simple but can restrict use of the equipment. OK to use when removal is infrequent.

Interlocked guards can be moved to a position that does not provide protection, but the interlock stops the machine and does not allow it to be started unless the guard in is the correct position. In some cases the guard cannot be moved whilst the machine is running.

As well as deciding between fixed and interlocked, the design and materials of construction need to be considered. For example:

* Strength (to withstand ejected items)
* Rigidity (so cannot be deformed and hence bypassed)
* Durability
* Visibility of user to job at hand
* Clearance to allow job to be set-up
* How it is fixed to the machine
* Ventilation to allow heat or fumes to escape (without allowing access)

Work equipment - managing risks

Key stages to managing risks from work equipment include:

* Select correct equipment for the job
* Make sure equipment is properly maintained and repaired
* Make sure components are in good condition (e.g. blunt bits and blades can increase vibration and noise)
* Inspect equipment and keep records
* Users to check equipment before use
* Users to be trained and provided with information and instructions
* Use guards
* Use in good environment (e.g. lighting, temperature. Working in cold can increase chance of problems with vibration white finger)


In general

* It must be possible to maintain, clean, erect and dismantle equipment safely. Ideally when machine is stopped, but if not possible safe system required
* Warnings and notices should be posted
* Prevent unauthorised use
* Do not make modifications to equipment or use 'cheater bars' (ad hoc lever) or other other changes to how controls are used.

Work equipment - hazards

Work equipment can be hazardous when it is being

* Used
* Maintained
* Installed
* Dismantled
* Moved
* Cleaned

People who may be harmed include those do the above and those in the vicinity

Hazards include

* Moving parts that can cause entanglement (wrap around)
* Moving parts that can draw-in body parts, hair, clothing (pinch points)
* Crushing
* Shear points (2 edges moving together to cut - scissor action)
* Sharp edges and points (moving or stationary)
* Abrasive surfaces
* Ejected parts, debris, dust, gas, vapour, liquid etc.
* Hot or cold surfaces
* Vibration
* Noise
* Fire
* Electricity
* Release of stored energy (spring, pressure)
* Equipment moving (self propelled, down hill, being pushed)
* Equipment over-turning

Work equipment

There is a great deal of equipment used at work, and much of it can be hazardous. In this context work equipment covers machinery, appliances, apparatus or tools. They can be manual or powered, handheld or large. Examples include

* Hammer, screw driver, pliers, knife, saw
* Powered drill, sander, plane, router
* Drilling machine, power dress, lathe, miller
* Dump truck, fork lift, crane
* Lift for people or objects
* Computer, photo copier, TV

Manual handling - regulations

The Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992 (amended 2002). Cover all manual handling of items and people.

Employers are required to:

* Avoid hazardous manual handling so far as is reasonably practicable
* Assess risk of injury from any hazardous manual handling
* Reduce risk so far as is reasonably practicable

Employees duties include:

* Follow appropriate systems of work laid down for their safety
* Make proper use of equipment provided
* Co-operate with their employer
* Inform employer if they identify any hazardous handling activity
* Ensure actions do not harm others

Manual handling - training

The aim of training is to explain the problem and give people the skills needed to avoid injury. It should cover:

* How back and other parts of body function and hence get injured
* Assessing a load (weight, size, location etc.) before attempting to lift or move
* How to avoid manual handling wherever possible
* How to lift and move objects safely

Lifting safely involves

* Think before lifting
* Plan route
* Position feet properly
* Keep load close to waist - bend knees
* Make sure body is steady and stable
* Get a good hold
* Start in a good posture (straight back) - bend knees
* Keep back straight whilst lifting
* Avoid twisting and turning
* Keep head up
* Move smoothly
* Put down and adjust

Reference

Manual handling - mechanical aids

Possibilities to remove or reduce manual handling risks include:

* Lifting equipment (e.g. fork lift truck)
* Push/pull trolleys and trucks
* Pallet movers and lifters
* Lifting surfaces (e.g. back of truck, bench)
* Tool boxes on wheels
* Conveyor belts
* Counter-weighted equipment

For moving people equipment can assist with
* Getting in/out of bed
* In/out of bath
* Up stairs

Manual handling - managing risks

Things to consider are
* Task
* Individual
* Load
* Environment

As for all risk management, the first thing to do is to consider whether the manual handling activity can be eliminated. First by not having to move the load at all. Second by use of lifting aids.

Next, can the risks be reduced by changing the task or rearranging equipment or the workplace? Things to consider include can the load be kept at the same level throughout the task (i.e. do not put on floor between activities), can the flow of work change so people do not need to twist or bend, can the flow be changed so the distances involved are reduced?

Where manual handling is carried out, people should be trained to do it properly.

There may be individual factors to consider including strength and size compared to the load.

It is important to monitor health and injury statistics to pick if manual handling may be a problem.

People under stress (maybe caused by boring jobs or unrealistic demands) may be more likely to have problems.

Manual handling - hazards

The following factors affect the likelihood of injury from manual handling

* Weight of load
* Frequency of handling
* Size of load
* Ease of getting hold of the item
* Distance of load from body
* Height of lift (most hazardous when low down or high up)
* Requirement to twist or bend sideways
* Physical restrictions in the area that affect persons posture when lifting
* Load moving, slipping, jolting any way

Other factors can affect the risk including a slippery floor or uncomfortable working environment (temperature, lighting etc.). Also, if the object has sharp edges and is hot or cold, this will affect how people take hold and lift.

Manual handling

Manual handling is a major cause of injury. Examples include:
* Lifting items
* Lifting people or animals
* Pushing or pulling items (i.e. on trolleys)
* Carrying items.